Australia, Geography and Other Statistics

The multicultural Australian society has a unique mix of people born overseas and indigenous peoples.  Australia's population is also unevenly distributed around the nation.  The population mostly lives in cities around the coast.  Below is a snap shot of some statistics and maps that provide a snap shot of the Australian Population. 

The total land area of Australia is approximately 7,692,030 square kilometres and lies between the latitudes of 10 degrees 41 minutes South and 43 degrees 39 minutes South and between the longitudes 113 degrees 09 minutes East and 153 degrees 39 minutes East. The distance by latitudinal measurement from North to South is 3,180 kilometres whilst the longitudinal distance East to West is approximately 4,000 kilometres.
Unlike Europe and some parts of North America for instance, Australia is a relatively flat and dry Continent as it is scientifically accepted that much of the land formation within Australia occurred up to tens of millions of years ago whilst in other Continents such formation can be measured in tens of thousands of years.
Much of the centre of Australia is flat, but there are numerous ranges (e.g. Macdonnells, Musgrave) and some individual mountains of which Uluru (Ayers Rock) is probably the best known. The area was worn to a plain, the plain uplifted and then eroded to form the modern ranges on today's plain. In looking at Uluru, one remarkable thing is not so much how it got there, but that so much has been eroded from all around to leave it there.

In South Australia there are the ranges of (Mt Lofty, Flinders Ranges) and hills (such as the Adelaide Hills), with the down faulted blocks occupied by sea (e.g. Spencer Gulf) or lowlands including the lower Murray Plains.In the East there is a gentle rise to highest part around Mt Kosciuszko (2,228 metres).

Between 55 and 10 million years ago, Australia drifted across the surface of the earth as a plate, moving north from a position once adjacent to Antarctica. There have been many changes in the climate of Australia in the past, but oddly these do not seem to be due to changing latitude (associated with global scale plate movements). Even when Australia was close to the South Pole, the climate was relatively warm and wet, and this persisted for a long time despite changes in latitude. It was probably under this climate that the deep weathered, iron-rich profiles that characterise much of Australia were formed.
Today a large part of Australia is arid or semi-arid. The dunes are mostly fixed now. Stony deserts or gibber plains are areas without sand cover and occupy a larger area than the dune fields. Salt lakes occur in many low positions, in places following lines of ancient drainage. They are often associated with lunettes, dunes formed on the downwind side of lakes. Many important finds of Aboriginal prehistory have been made in lunettes. Despite the prevalence of arid conditions today, real aridity seems to be geologically young, with no dunes or salt lakes older than a million years.

The broad shape of Australia has been influenced over long periods by earth movements associated with large tectonic processes. However, much of the detail has been carved by river erosion. A significant number of Australia's rivers, like the Diamantina River, drain inland. While they may be eroding their valleys near their highland sources, their lower courses are filling up with alluvium, and the rivers often end in salt lakes, which are dry for most of the time. Other rivers reach the sea, and have dissected a broad near-coast region into plateaus, hills and valleys. Many of the features of the drainage pattern of Australia have a very long history, and some individual valleys have maintained their position for hundreds of millions of years.
The offshore shape of Australia, revealed in isobath contours, results mainly from the pattern of break-up of the super-continent of which Australia was once a part. In some areas, such as the Great Australian Bight, there is a broad continental shelf bounded by a steeper continental slope. In other areas, like southeast New South Wales around Merimbula and much of the Tasmanian coastline, the continental shelf is very narrow, sometimes coming to within 20 nautical miles of the coast.
The Queensland coast is bounded by a broad plateau on which the Great Barrier Reef has grown in only the last two million years. Notwithstanding the emphasis given on arid and dry areas, there are also vast areas of virgin rain forests of all types, lakes, pristine rivers, snow and fertile coastal areas.

Australian Climate

The climate zones range widely within Australia from arid areas in the centre to tropical regions in the North and the more temperate zones in the South.
Australia is often referred to as 'The Dry Continent', with the general land mass being somewhat arid, having a median rainfall less than 600 mm per year and 50% less than 300 mm (the average is 450 mm). Seasonal fluctuations can be large, with temperatures ranging from above 50°C to well below zero. There are many extremes of temperature and climate throughout the breadth of Australia from floods, cyclones and severe storms to the extreme hot weather and bushfires.

Australian Agriculture

In spite of Australia's harsh environment, agriculture is the most extensive form of land use. The estimated total area of agricultural establishments in Australia is 463.8 million hectares, representing about 60% of the total land area. The rest of the Australian land area consists of unoccupied land (mainly desert in western and central Australia), Aboriginal land reserves (mainly located in the Northern Territory), forests, mining leases, national parks and urban areas.

Livestock grazing accounts for the largest area of land use in Australian agriculture. This activity has led to the replacement of large areas of native vegetation with introduced pastures and grasses in the higher rainfall and irrigated areas.

Currently, 4.6% of Australia's agricultural land was under crops, with a further 4.9% under sown pastures and grasses. This maintains the trend, which has seen about 10% of Australia's agricultural land under cultivation each year since the 1980s. Until this time, the area of land cropped or sown to pastures and grasses had been expanding rapidly. This expansion was facilitated by factors including increased use of fertilisers.

Australian Mining

Australia is the world's largest exporter of black coal, bauxite, lead, diamonds and mineral sands; the second largest exporter of alumina, iron ore and uranium; and the third largest exporter of aluminium and gold.

Black coal remained the biggest export earning commodity, with a value of $9.6b in 1997-98, representing 11% of total merchandise exports. Other major exports were gold, iron ore and bauxite/alumina. Export earnings from crude oil and condensate increased by 5% to $2.0b, from liquefied natural gas (LNG) by 4% to $1.6b in 1997-98 and from LPG by 3% to $367m.
Australia has the world's largest economically recoverable resources of bauxite, tantalum, lead, mineral sands (ilmenite, rutile and zircon), silver, uranium and zinc. In addition, Australia's economic demonstrated resources are within the top six world-wide for black coal, brown coal, cobalt, copper, gold, iron ore, lithium, manganese ore, nickel, rare earths, gem/near gem diamonds and industrial diamonds. Australia has almost all of the world's opal resources, and a significant share of the world's sapphire resources.

Population Distribution
Most of Australia's population is concentrated in two widely separated coastal regions. By far the largest of these, in terms of area and population, lies in the south-east and east. The smaller of the two regions is in the south-west of the continent. In both coastal regions the population is concentrated in urban centres, particularly the State and Territory capital cities. Half the area of the continent contains only 0.3% of the population, and the most densely populated 1% of the continent contains 84% of the population. The distribution of Australia's population is shown in map 1.

While New South Wales remains the most populous State, with 6.34 million people at June 1998, the fastest growth has occurred in Queensland, which increased by 11.1% in the five years to 1998. In contrast, the populations in South Australia and Tasmania remained comparatively stable, increasing by 1.8% and 0.5% over the same period. Since 1999 there has been growth trends especially in Queensland with the Gold Coast and Northern New South Wales areas being by far the fastest growing areas in Australia. This has occurred mainly through internal movement from southern states, but also as a result of migration from overseas.

Countries of Birth
Since the end of World War II the population increased rapidly due to high levels of migration, and the proportion of the population born overseas increased from 10% in 1947 to 23% at June 1998 (table 5.32). As well as this increase, there has been a diversification of the population. In 1947, 81% of the overseas born population came from the main English speaking countries (the United Kingdom and Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, Canada and the United States), mainly from the United Kingdom and Ireland. By June 1998, only 39% of the overseas born population had been born in the main English speaking countries.

For the last few decades, the Italian, Greek and Dutch born populations in Australia have been declining. There were large flows of people from these countries after World War II, and relatively little migration more recently. As these populations age, they experience high numbers of deaths. There are also significant numbers of people returning to their countries of birth in their retirement.
At the 1996 Census, 3.9 million people had been born overseas in one of over 200 countries. A further 3.8 million had one or both parents born overseas. There were 2.6 million people who spoke a language other than English at home. The 1996 Census classified 92 religious denominations as well as 282 major languages, including 170 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages.

Some Early History
Australia is and always has been an immigration country. About 40,000 years ago, the Aborigines were the first to settle. They lived as hunters and gatherers in a profound understanding for nature. Their way of living developed into a complex culture based on oral tradition and intricate social bounds, which was almost destroyed by the second wave of settlers.
In 1770, James Cook landed in Botany Bay, which today is part of Sydney. The British government decided to use convicts to tame the newly discovered continent and did not care a lot for the people that were already there. Deportation to Australia lasted for about eighty years. After this all immigrants went more or less voluntarily. Today there're still a lot of immigrants, which combined cultural heritage makes the Australian culture a real global one. Australia also discovered the value of the Aboriginal culture and is proud of it. Though Australia is a nation, or more correct a federation of eight independent states, it's also a continent, with really big differences between different areas. It is a land of leisure, with sun, sea and an enviable 'Crocodile Dundee' outdoor lifestyle, but this is just a very narrow conception of a continent. Most known are the deserts, but Australia’s beautiful desert areas are becoming increasingly popular as well.
One of states is the island state Tasmania of which one fifth is World Heritage area. Each state has its own national parks with their specific character where you can indulge in bush-walking or maybe even rock-climbing. When you’re interested in the miracles of water-world, you can’t miss out on the Great Barrier Reef on the east coast, the main reason for many travellers to visit Cairns. The Wet Tropics of Queensland comprise dense rainforests and foaming waterfalls. Rare species of animals can be spotted in the famous Kakadu National Park as well as ancient aboriginal-art. These old drawings can also be seen in the Namadgi National Park.
Good places to set off for exploration of the great outdoors are big cities such as Brisbane, Canberra, Darwin, Adelaide and Perth, that all have interesting sights and a good cultural atmosphere as well. Of course, Australia is surrounded by sea; so good swimming and surfing beaches are more a rule than an exception. Both to the north and south of Brisbane is one of the many stretches of coast where you can find excellent beaches, probably better known as the Sunshine Coast and the Gold Coast. Don’t forget the smaller historically interesting Alice Springs that will lead you right to the famous Ayers Rock.
Deserts, rainforests, big cities….and just when you thought you’d caught a glimpse of the versatile character of this fascinating continent, you forgot about Melbourne and the excellent skiing opportunities in the Alpine National Park. Another good option is the Snowy Mountains area in NSW.
Australia has been inhabited for about 53,000 years, when the remote ancestors of the current Australian Aborigines arrived from present-day Southeast Asia. The land was not discovered by Europeans until the 17th century, when it was sighted and visited by several expeditions. It was claimed for the United Kingdom in 1770, and first colonised in 1788, including a large group of English convicts.
In 1901, Australia became a commonwealth or dominion within the British Empire, thereby becoming independent (though full independence on all issues took considerable time after that). Australia is a Constitutional monarchy, with a 'Queen of Australia' reigning as head of state. Under Australian law, the monarch of the United Kingdom reigns also as Australian monarch. A referendum to introduce a republic, with a president replacing the Queen, failed in 1999.

Australian Political System

Australia is both the name of the world's smallest continent, and the short form of the Commonwealth of Australia. The Commonwealth of Australia is the sixth largest country in the world, the only one to occupy an entire continent, and is generally considered the largest member of Oceania with New Zealand to the southeast; Papua New Guinea, West Papua and East Timor to its north, and Indonesia northwest. The name 'Australia' comes from the Latin phrase terra australis incognita ("unknown southern land").
The Commonwealth of Australia is a constitutional monarchy: the Queen of England is the official head of state and is represented by the Governor General. In practice the role of the Crown (and thus that of the Governor General) is largely ceremonial. The executive power theoretically vested in the Crown is exercised by an elected cabinet headed by a prime minister. The prime minister is almost always the leader of the majority party in the House of Representatives.
The Australian Monarchy is controversial, with some Australian politicians advocating its abolishment.
The House of Representatives (150 seats) is one of the two chambers of the parliament, the other being the Senate (76 seats). Elections for both chambers are held every three years.

States and Territories

Australia is divided into a number of states and territories. The states are Western Australia, Queensland, South Australia, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, while the territories, Australian Capital Territory and Northern Territory.
Australia also has an additional minor internal territory, Jervis Bay Territory (a naval base in New South Wales), several inhabited external territories (Norfolk Island, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands and several largely uninhabited external territories: Coral Sea Islands Territory, Heard Island and McDonald Islands and the Australian Antarctic Territory.
The Australian Capital Territory was created at the chosen site of the capital city Canberra. Canberra was founded as a compromise between Sydney and Melbourne, which both demanded to become the capital city.

Australian Government
 Australia has a federal system of government within which there are four divisions: Commonwealth, state, territory and local government.

This section outlines the basic features of the Australian system of government, including:

Australia is a constitutional democracy based on a federal division of powers. The constitutional basis of government consists of:

Commonwealth Constitution

The national Constitution is found in the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900(UK), a British Act that became law in July 1900 and came into force on 1 January 1901.

Amendment of the written Commonwealth Constitution is by Act of Parliament followed by public referendum. Any proposed law for the alteration of the Constitution must be passed by an absolute majority of each House of Parliament (except in circumstances specified in Section 128 of the Constitution which permits a referendum to proceed if passed by only one chamber). It must also be submitted to a referendum of the electors in each state and territory. An amendment must be approved by a majority of the voters in a majority of the states and by a majority of all voters.

The Governor-General is the representative of the Sovereign, appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Australian Prime Minister.

Powers and functions

The Governor-General exercises the executive power of the Commonwealth of Australia on the advice of the Prime Minister. Certain other powers and functions conferred by the Constitution include the powers to:

In addition, the Governor-General, as the Queen's representative, is Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Forces. Many Acts of the Commonwealth Parliament provide that the Governor-General may make regulations to give effect to such Acts. The Governor-General may also be authorised by statute to issue proclamations, for example, to declare an Act in force. The Governor-General has been given power by statute to legislate for certain of the Australian territories.

The Governor-General also has what are referred to as 'reserve powers'. These may be used without the advice of the Prime Minister, but are used only in times of political uncertainty.

Commonwealth legislative power is vested in the Commonwealth Parliament, comprising the House of Representatives (150 members) and the Senate (76 members).

The powers of Parliament

Apart from the constitutional requirement that all financial legislation must originate in the House of Representatives, and that the Senate cannot amend such legislation, the two houses have similar powers. The fact that the Senate can reject financial legislation makes it one of the most powerful upper houses in the world.

Australia having a federal system means that the powers of the Commonwealth Parliament are limited to areas of national importance. Among the powers granted by the Constitution are trade and commerce, taxation, postal services, foreign relations, defence, immigration, naturalisation, quarantine, currency and coinage, weights and measures, copyright, patents and trade marks. High Court decisions and Commonwealth-state agreements have seen the Commonwealth gain influence in regard to various matters including industrial relations, financial regulation, companies and securities, health and welfare, and education.

The functions of Parliament

Parliament has five primary functions:

The formation of a government is the most important outcome of a general election. Either the government is returned, by virtue of retaining a majority of seats in the House of Representatives, or the opposition party or coalition of parties wins a majority of seats, resulting in the formation of a new government. The Prime Minister always sits in the House of Representatives.

The Hon. JW Howard, MP (Liberal Party of Australia) has been Prime Minister since March 1996.

More than half of Parliament's time is taken up with the consideration of proposed legislation. Between 150 and 250 bills are passed each year. Most bills are not contentious, either being 'machinery' legislation necessary for the orderly processes of government, or bills that propose alterations to existing legislation. Most of the bills are government bills; private members' legislation is rare.

The representation of the people is an important role of members of the House of Representatives and senators. Looking after their constituents occupies a great deal of their time. The relative importance of this role may be judged by the high proportion of time spent by MPs in their electorates and away from Parliament. During the 1990s the Parliament averaged 64 sitting days per year.

The scrutiny function is seen most obviously in the formal periods of Question Time, in both houses, that are a part of each day's sitting. Question Time is the best-known part of parliamentary proceedings, and is attended by many of the visiting public. Less well known is the activity of a range of parliamentary committees that are established in order that Parliament's legislative, inquiry and scrutiny functions can be carried out more thoroughly and with the benefit of expert advice. These committees undertake the scrutiny of government operations as well as frequent inquiries into a range of current issues.

In Westminster system governments, such as Australia's, the Opposition has a recognised and formal status, being recognised in the Standing Orders of the Parliament and in legislation. The Opposition is seen as the alternative government and typically forms a 'shadow Cabinet' of MPs who prepare themselves to take on the reins of government. The Opposition also has the role of acting as the main critic of the government and of offering to the community an alternative set of policies.

Prime Minister

After an election, the Governor-General sends for the leader of the party, or coalition, which has secured a majority in the House of Representatives, and commissions that person to assume the office of Prime Minister and to form a government. The incoming Prime Minister then goes about the process of finding members of his or her parliamentary party or coalition to serve as ministers in the Government.

The office of Prime Minister is not recognised by the formal Constitution, being a conventional part of the constitutional arrangements.

The Prime Minister has the following powers:

Ministers

It is customary for all ministers to be members of parliament, and if a minister is not, it is obligatory for that minister to become an MP within three months of his/her appointment. Reshuffles of the ministry may occur at any time between elections. Ministers are invariably members of the same party or coalition as the Prime Minister.

In most cases, new governments are formed after general elections have been held to determine the composition of the House. A new government could also be formed on any occasion between elections if the majority party changes its leader, or loses its majority (e.g. as a result of a by-election), or is defeated in an important vote in the House.


Cabinet

In practice, government policy is determined by the most senior ministers meeting in a body known as Cabinet. Such meetings are chaired by the Prime Minister. The Governor-General does not attend such meetings. Cabinet is not a body that is recognised by the formal Constitution, being a conventional part of the constitutional arrangements. Despite this, Cabinet effectively controls not only the legislative program, but also the departments of state. In effect, therefore, Cabinet is the dominant political and administrative element in Australia's national government. Ministers not included in Cabinet are referred to collectively as the Outer Ministry.

The party system

An Australian party system had begun to develop during the last years of the colonial period in the 1890s, to the extent that most seats in the first parliament were won by candidates from just three major groups. The outline of the modern system can be seen as early as 1909 when a fusion of the major non-Labor parties formed the first Liberal Party. This was confirmed in the election in the following year, which saw the election dominated by the Liberal and Australian Labor parties. In 1919 the Country Party won a significant number of seats, and by 1922 it was participating in a coalition government. Since that time the Australian party system has been dominated by the contest between Labor and a coalition of the Liberal and National (formerly Country) parties. Many minor parties have contested House of Representatives elections, but have not seriously threatened the dominance of the three major parties.

Since 1949 the use of proportional representation for Senate elections has given minor parties a realistic chance of winning Senate seats, and the major parties have rarely controlled the upper house since the election of 1964.

Parties and Parliament

The idea that Parliament 'controls' ministers, as well as government policy and the departments and statutory bodies which implement these policies, is a concept which had more relevance in the 19th century than it does today. Stable majority party government in the 20th century is perhaps the main reason for the decline in absolute parliamentary control as well as for the decline in the influence of Parliament relative to that of the Executive.

The impact of parties can be seen clearly in the operations of each house of Parliament, particularly in the legislative process. Many questions and queries may be raised in the House of Representatives, and amendments are often moved. However, because governments enjoy a majority in the House, questions may be avoided, amendments cannot be forced, and whether or not the Opposition's views are accepted depends on the wishes of the government of the day.

It is a different story in the Senate, where no government has enjoyed a majority since 1981. If the Government wants legislation to be passed by the Senate it often has to agree to amendments proposed by the Opposition and minor parties. It is for this reason that the Senate is far more active than the House in sending proposed legislation to committees.

Australia in General

As mentioned earlier, the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-desert - 40% of the landmass is covered by sand dunes - but the southeast has a temperate climate and moderately fertile plains. The northern part of the country has a tropical climate, and is partially grown with tropical rainforests. Offshore from the northeastern coast is the Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef.

Flora and Fauna

Although most of the continent is desert or semi-desert, Australia also includes a very diverse range of habitats, from alpine heaths to tropical jungles. Because of the great age of the continent, its very variable weather patterns, and its long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique.

Economy

Australia has a prosperous Western-style capitalist economy, with a per capita GDP on par with the four dominant West European economies. The Australian economy has been resilient in the face of the global economic downturn in 2001 chalking up 2.3% GDP growth, as the domestic economy is offsetting the external slump and business and consumer confidence remains robust. Canberra's emphasis on reforms is a key factor behind the economy's strength, and Australia outperformed its trading partners in 2002, with GDP growth projected to be 3% or better.
Australia has a high rate of home ownership. Of the seven million households in Australia in 1997-98, 70% were living in their own home, and 26% were renting their dwelling from a State housing authority or private landlords.
In 1997-98, 39% of households owned their homes outright. This was a fall from the situation in 1995-96, when 42% of households owned their homes outright. In addition, 30% of households were paying off a mortgage or loan secured against their dwelling.

The median owner-estimated value of dwellings for capital cities was $164,000, 13% higher than the national median ($145,200). The median value was highest in Sydney at $251,200 and lowest in Adelaide at $116,100

Demographics

Most of the Australian population descends from 19th and 20th Century immigrants. Originally from the United Kingdom, Australia became a popular emigration destination in the 20th century, and many inhabitants are of Greek, Italian or Asian descent. Descendants of the original population, the Australian Aborigines, make up less than 1% of the population. In common with many other developed countries, Australia is currently experiencing a shift of typical age ranges that if continued would lead to proportionately more retired people and fewer of working age.
English is the spoken language in Australia, although some of the surviving Aboriginal communities maintain their native languages, and a considerable number of first and sometimes second-generation migrants are bi-lingual. Although the nation is broadly secular, three-quarters of Australians are nominally Christian, mostly Catholic and Anglican, and a diverse range of other religions is practised.

Population

On 3 June 2003 at 16:06:42 (Canberra time), the resident population of Australia is projected to be 19,872,135.
This projection is based on the estimated resident population at 31 December 2002 and assumes growth since then of:

POPULATION GROWTH RATES

During the year ended December 2002 the Australian population grew by 1.3%. Excluding Other Territories, all states and territories, with the exception of the Northern Territory, had positive growth rates, the highest being for Queensland (2.4%) and the lowest for Tasmania (0.5%). The Northern Territory recorded a negative growth rate of 0.1% (or a small loss of 240 persons) in the 12 months ended December 2002.

THE CAPITAL CITIES

Sydney
Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, is Australia's oldest and largest city with a population of around 3,986,700. Sydney is built around a huge harbour and hosts many tourist attractions as well as a number of beaches, bays and a couple of national parks. The city also has an Anglo Mediterranean style and a growing Chinese and Asian influence
Set on a large harbour it has the natural advantages of walks around the harbour foreshores, spectacular views bayside parks and gardens and the architectural magic of the Harbour Bridge and the Opera House.
It’s well known for its carefree style and outdoor lifestyle. Sydney is an also an architectural dream. Many homes overlook the water or nestle in the bush, and are cantilevered over cliffs or dug back into the scenery.
The city of Sydney is divided into North and South by the Sydney Harbour, with both Sydney Harbour Bridge and Tunnel [which is under the harbour] connecting them. Most of the tourist attractions are in the South part of the city, with a large business and residential area in the North.
Sydney's climate is in its favour - the warmest months of December to February have an average maximum temperature of 26º Celsius. Being close to the ocean, hot days are often tempered by cooling sea breezes and evening temperatures are balmy - perfect for relaxed outdoor dining. June to August are the coolest months, with daytime temperatures rarely falling below 7º Celsius. Even on mid-winter days, with their bright blue, wide-open skies, an overcoat is usually not necessary in Sydney.
Sydney's climate is in its favour - the warmest months of December to February have an average maximum temperature of 26º Celsius. Being close to the ocean, hot days are often tempered by cooling sea breezes and evening temperatures are balmy - perfect for relaxed outdoor dining. June to August are the coolest months, with daytime temperatures rarely falling below 7º Celsius. Even on mid-winter days, with their bright blue, wide-open skies, an overcoat is usually not necessary in Sydney.

Melbourne
Melbourne is the second largest city in Australia and is the capital of the south eastern state of Victoria. Situated on Port Phillip Bay, and covering an area of 7,280 sq kilometres, it is home to 3.2 million people from diverse backgrounds and interests, giving the city a distinctive cosmopolitan character.
Melbourne is Australia's second largest city. Attractively located on the banks of the Yarra River and the shores of Port Phillip, Melbourne is characterised by sophistication and a certain solidity of purpose.
For the first time visitor Melbourne is an easy city. It is basically laid out in a grid system (roads run at right angles to each other) which means that if you miss a street you can drive to the next street, do a right or left hand turn, go around the block and pick up the street a few blocks further down. Uniquely it has maintained its tram system which is efficient and which adds greatly to the appeal of the city. And, in shopping terms, it has maintained a love affair with arcades and narrow streets which means that it is quite different from other modern cities where huge malls and skyscrapers are the norm.
From magnificent tree-lined streets and classic architecture, to the vast array of culinary experiences, Melbourne is a city of contrasts offering something for everyone. Laid out in a symmetrical, rectangular grid, with wide streets and an abundance of parks and gardens, Melbourne gained a reputation as the 'Garden City', something it has been proud to maintain.
Melbourne's world-class parks and gardens are host to a wide range of recreational activities. And Melburnians have a particular passion for all types of sport. This is demonstrated throughout the year with major events such as the Australian Formula 1 Grand Prix, the AFL Grand Final, the Australian Open Tennis Championships and the world famous horse race that stops the nation, the Melbourne Cup.
Victoria enjoys four distinct seasons. Summer (December to February) has plenty of warm, sunny days around 26º Celsius, though the weather can be changeable so bring a light jacket just in case. Spring (September to November) is fresh and invigorating, and autumn (March to May) is a superb time to visit with the changing leaves and moderate temperatures. Winter (June to August) can be cold - alpine snowfields are just three hours from Melbourne by car, a perfect opportunity to enjoy some skiing!

Brisbane
Brisbane is the capital of Queensland and is a cosmopolitan and lively city that is home to many different types of scenery, including skyscrapers, parkland and even an artificial beach. Brisbane is a river city, although close to the coast, with Brisbane River running through it. It is surrounded by hills and full of bridges. Brisbane also gives easy access to a number of attractions as well as the Gold Coast and the Sunshine Coast.
Known as the City of Sun Days, Brisbane enjoys great weather, a relaxed pace of life and all the cosmopolitan bustle of a major urban hub. It doesn’t seem to matter what time of year it is – there’s always something exciting happening in this vibrant city. You’ll find the best in arts and culture, entertainment and sports events as well as good food, wine and shopping.
'Brisbane is a lazy town with its sleeves rolled up, casually sprawling across its thirty-seven hills. The hills are patterned with paling fences, mango trees, high-stepping weatherboard houses, and a tangle of overhead wires like the web of a demented spider
Music, dancing, partying, live shows, good times – there’s plenty more going on in the City of Sun Days and fun nights.
Brisbane has a sub-tropical climate.  The coolest months are July/August with day temperatures around 21º Celsius, nights around 10º Celsius. The hottest season (January/February) has highs around 29º Celsius with evenings around 21º Celsius. So your luggage should be mainly light clothes, cool and casual. No wonder Queenslanders say 'Beautiful one day, perfect the next'.

Canberra
The city of Canberra is the capital of the Australian Capital Territory. This city was designed by American architect Walter Burley Griffin, with the land being bought in 1911, and the majority of the cities development occurring after World War II. The city hosts fabulous architecture and large green areas with around 12 million trees, well outnumbering its population of 308,086.
The city surrounds Lake Burley Griffin, a beautiful but artificial lake. The city is to the North of the lake, with the main road running through it being Northbourne Avenue. Off of this you will find the main shopping areas, banks, post offices and bus terminals. Commonwealth Avenue links to Northbourne Avenue crossing the lake. The main tourist attractions are on the triangle, made up of Commonwealth Avenue, Constitution Avenue and Kings Avenue.
Canberra is home to Government, where you can visit Parliament House, The National Gallery of Australia and The Australian National Botanic Gardens. As well as offering a full range of culture the city also offers a lively entertainment scene, including its theatres and cinemas.
The four seasons in Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, are very distinct. Autumn is possibly the best time to visit, in March to May. There's a magnificent display of russet and golden foliage as the hot, dry summer cools to balmy temperatures. Spring (September - November) is warm, colourful and invigorating, and the winter months.

Darwin
Darwin is the capital city of the Northern Territory. Located between Beagle Gulf and Port Darwin and situated on Fannie Bay, Darwin is a thriving centre of over 70 000 people.
Darwin offers a blend of cosmopolitan and city pleasures. It also acts as a gateway to key Top End natural and cultural attractions
Darwin sits on a harbour twice the size of Sydney harbour and overlooks the Arafura Sea, offering an array of waterfront delights including superb dining, cruising, or wreck-diving.
The main industries in Darwin are mining and administration. Darwin is also the doorway to the Northern areas. The city is fairly small, situated on the peninsula . The main highway leading through the city is Stuart Highway, which heads around the city, leading south. Although the city extends about 15km to the north and east, the main centre only extends about 2-3 blocks from the transit centre or mall.
Darwin is well known for the cyclone [Cyclone Tracy] which hit on Christmas Day, 1974. It was, quite simply, Australia's worst natural disaster. At 3 am the anemometer at Darwin Airport recorded winds of 217 km/h before it stopped working; winds of up to 250 km/h were estimated to have hit the city; total damage exceeded $1000 million and 65 people were killed; about 26 000 people had to be evaluated and over 1000 people needed medical attention; 16 people were lost at sea, their bodies never recovered; the ABC radio station, 8DR, was off the air for 34 hours; over 90 per cent of all buildings in the city were seriously damaged.
Darwin has just two seasons - tropical summer in November to March, and tropical winter in May to October. It's warm all year-round, but summer is wetter and winter is dry. The crisp, clean air, warm dry days, low humidity and cool nights of Darwin's winter are perfect for outdoors adventures and touring.
Summer is when the Top End shows nature at its best, with spectacular lightning shows and sun showers. Watch the waterfalls spring to life and wetlands become a haven for vast flocks of birds.

Perth
Perth, the capital of Western Australia, is another of Australia's modern cities and is supposedly Australia's sunniest capital. Perth is also the most isolated capital city in the world with 80% of the 1.8 million people in Western Australia living in and around the city.
Perth is situated on the west bank of the Swan River and was founded in 1829. It grew due to the convicts arrival around the labour shortage, with many of the major buildings built by the convicts. The city boomed during the 1890's gold discovery.
A sophisticated, scenic city, there is plenty to do in Western Australia’s capital. Characterised by numerous waterways, green parks and a compact city centre, Perth’s brilliant blue skies and warm sunny climate must be experienced to be believed.
There is plenty to see and do in Perth. You can tour the city by motorised tram or courtesy bus; partake in the many water sports on the Swan River; enjoy a glass of Western Australian wine in a riverside or beachside restaurant; or explore one of the city’s most popular icons - the 400 hectares of natural bush that form the spectacular Kings Park in the centre of the city.
Known as the Sunset Coast, Perth’s 80 kilometres of beaches are ideal to enjoy the gold, pink, and yellow visions that grace the west coast.
Most paint Perth as bright, fun, friendly and "laid back" (relaxing) but visitors to the city can be sure to find their own descriptions after their holiday. Whet your appetite with a day on the Swan River, a picnic to the Darling Ranges, a visit to a vineyard or a stroll around Perth or Fremantle. From outdoors to indoors, a fabulous range of city and suburban shops will satisfy even the most particular tourist. Everything from traditional Australian gifts and garments, opals, Kalgoorlie gold and precious diamonds to succulent local seafood, tender red meat and fresh fruit and vegetables.
With its Mediterranean climate, Perth is the perfect sunny Australian capital city, averaging eight hours of sunshine a day, year round. It has four seasons, with average temperatures of around 30º Celsius in summer and around 18º Celsius in winter.  January to March are usually the hottest months, with temperatures sometimes rising to 40º Celsius at this time. However, the heat is dry and the 'Fremantle Doctor' - a refreshing south-westerly ocean breeze - can be relied upon to bring mid-afternoon relief.

Adelaide
Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, is a civilised and calm city, that is home to around one million people. It is divided into two parts, Adelaide and North Adelaide, separated by Torrens River. A diverse range of landscapes surround the city, including green parkland, the Mount Lofty Ranges and coastal beaches.
With a population of nearly a million people Adelaide is Australia's fourth largest city. It is one of Australia's few planned cities and its broad streets give it a sense of openness and cleanliness which is missing from the more haphazardous developments of Sydney and Melbourne. It is a typical Mediterranean-style city.
Adelaide's city centre has been well planned and is made up of a grid of streets and various squares. Being only one mile square makes it extremely accessible. The main street (King William Street) runs directly from north to south of the city through Victoria Square, which is at the heart of the city.
Adelaide's climate is often described as Mediterranean - mild winters and warm to hot summers. It's a place to enjoy the good life. The warmest months (December - February ) will captivate you with carefree outdoor dining, perfect days on the beach or just alfresco cafe hopping. Spring and autumn bring pleasant, mild days and nights to enjoy. The average maximum summer temperature is 28º Celsius, while in winter it drops to about 15º Celsius. Summer temperatures in the outback regularly reach 40º Celsius.
Adelaide's climate is often described as Mediterranean - mild winters and warm to hot summers. It's a place to enjoy the good life. The warmest months (December - February ) will captivate you with carefree outdoor dining, perfect days on the beach or just alfresco cafe hopping. Spring and autumn bring pleasant, mild days and nights to enjoy. The average maximum summer temperature is 28º Celsius, while in winter it drops to about 15º Celsius. Summer temperatures in the outback regularly reach 40º Celsius.

Hobart
Hobart, the capital of Tasmania, holds two records. One as the Southernmost capital city in Australia the other as the 2nd oldest capital city. The city offers both history in its Georgian buildings and harbour, and modern elements. It is surrounded by Derwent River and Mt. Wellington.
The city began as a town of tents and huts with a population of 262, but was named a city in 1842. Important industries included whaling, shipbuilding and export of corn and wool.
The population of the city is relatively stable. There were 164 400 people in 1976 and this had risen by less than 10 000 by 1983 when the population was 173 700 and less than another 10 000 to 183 500 in 1990. The stability and smallness of the population means that house prices, unlike every mainland city, have remained relatively low. Equally job opportunities in the city are limited.
Tasmania is the most non-urbanised of all the Australian states with only 40.2 per cent of its population living in, Hobart, the capital city.
The city is fairly small with the streets laid out in a grid, with the Elizabeth Street Mall being the centre. You'll also find a further shopping area along Elizabeth Street. For history visit the Georgian warehouses along the waterfront and the colony district of Battery Point. The university and casino are further along the river on Sandy Bay. To the north of the city is The Domain, a recreation centre, including the Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens. There is also a bridge crossing to the east and the airport.
More than anywhere else in Australia, Tasmanians enjoy a temperate, maritime climate with four distinctly different seasons. Each one has its unique pleasures and appeal, all presenting perfect opportunities for touring. Summer temperatures (December - February) average a comfortable 22º Celsius, and in winter (June - August) around 12º Celsius. Spring and autumn are warm, but bring extra clothing for the evenings. Tasmania's summer days are wonderfully long - at midsummer, daylight lasts more than 15 hours.

Health
The WHO defines health as 'a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity'. While the level of disease or infirmity can be assessed by mortality, disability and morbidity statistics, the presence of positive wellbeing is more difficult to measure.

Health and wellbeing

In 2001, the majority of Australians aged 15 years and over considered themselves to be in good health, with 82% reporting their health status as good, very good or excellent. This is similar to the proportion reported in the previous NHS (83% in 1995). In 2001, young men aged 15-24 were most likely to consider themselves to be in good health (92%), while women aged 85 years or more were least likely to report that they were in good health (60%).

The distribution across health status categories was similar for males and females. As would be expected, the proportion of people reporting fair or poor health increased with age. Of those aged 15-24, 9% assessed their health as fair or poor in comparison to 34% of those aged 65 years and over. In addition, individuals' rating of their health was strongly related to their physical health. In 2001, some 96% of those without a long-term condition assessed their health as good, very good or excellent, compared to 80% of those who reported a long-term condition.

Education and Training
Commonwealth and State Government responsibilities in Education
School attendance is compulsory throughout Australia between the ages of 6 and 15 years (16 years in Tasmania). Most children start primary school at about five years of age.

Each State and Territory has developed its own approach to schooling, particularly in relation to the structure of pre-Year One education and the transition from primary to secondary schooling. Primary schooling in most States and Territories begins with a preparatory or kindergarten year, followed by six or seven primary grades, then a further five or six years to complete a full secondary course of study. In total, most States and Territories have 13 years of schooling. While the final two years of schooling generally fall outside the compulsory stage of education, in 1998 some 85% of students remained at school until Year 11 and 72% remained until Year 12.

Tertiary education is mainly provided through universities, TAFE institutions and other Vocational Education and Training institutions such as secretarial colleges, trade colleges, and private business and commercial colleges.

Total expenditure on education is currently in excess of $29 billion dollars annually.

State and territory governments have the responsibility for most education and training, including the administration and substantial funding of primary and secondary education.
The Commonwealth Government has special responsibilities in education and training for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, migrants, international relations in education, and assistance for students. It is also principally responsible for funding of higher education institutions, and provides supplementary funding for schools and for VET. The Commonwealth Government also provides special grants to the states and territories for areas of particular need. Apart from its significant financial role, the Commonwealth is also involved in promoting national consistency and coherence in the provision of education and training across Australia.
 Education in Australia is of internationally excellent standards.  Education is now one of Australia's largest industries.  Australian Universities now rely significantly on the overseas students that come to Australia to study.  Many Australia Universities are now building campuses in Asian nations. While many regional universities offer excellent correspondence courses.  The relatively safe and multicultural cities are ideal for overseas students to more easily adapt to study in Australia.  Most overseas students are from Asia and most universities have existing communities of students from most Asian countries.  Australia also has many Asian migrants living in Australia. Today, six out of Australia’s top 10 source countries for family migrants are in Asia

Crime and Justice

The criminal justice system

 The criminal justice system consists of the state/territory and Commonwealth institutions, agencies, departments and personnel responsible for dealing with the justice aspects of crime, victims of crime, persons accused or convicted of committing a crime, and related issues and processes.

Each state and territory has laws and police, courts and corrections systems, while the federal criminal justice system deals with offences against Commonwealth laws. Criminal law is administered principally through the federal, state and territory police, the courts and state and territory corrective or penal services. There is no independent federal corrective service, and the relevant state or territory agencies provide corrective services for federal offenders.

The states and territories have independent legislative powers in relation to all matters that are not otherwise specifically vested in the Commonwealth of Australia, and it is the statute law and the common law of the states and territories that primarily govern the day-to-day lives of most Australians.

The eight states and territories have powers to enact their own criminal laws, while the Commonwealth has powers to enact laws, including sanctions for criminal offences, in relation to its responsibilities under the Constitution. Thus, in effect, there are nine different systems of criminal law in Australia. The existence of cooperative arrangements between the various states and territories and the Commonwealth, such as those relating to extradition or the creation of joint police services, helps address issues which have arisen out of the separate development of the various systems of criminal law.

The various agencies that comprise the criminal justice system act within a broader process in which criminal offenders interact with police, courts and corrective services.

The police, as well as agencies such as Australian Customs Service (ACS), are responsible for the prevention, detection and investigation of crimes. Where alleged offenders are detected by police, they can be proceeded against either through the use of a non-court process (such as a caution, fine or diversionary conferencing) or charges may be laid before a criminal court. The court, including judicial officers, a jury (in the higher courts), the prosecution and the defence, determines the guilt or innocence of the defendant.

Following the hearing of the charges, in cases where a finding of guilt is made by the court, sentences may be imposed. These may include imprisonment, community service orders of various kinds, fines or bonds. A number of jurisdictions have also introduced penalties such as home detention or work outreach camps which are administered by correctional agencies. Fines and bonds are the most common penalties handed down by the courts.

Australia's heritage draws on its cultural and natural environments and the history of its people.

Cultural heritage includes historic places of significance, such as: old towns, and residential and commercial buildings; Indigenous ceremonial grounds and rock art galleries; shipwrecks and streetscapes; as well as paintings, objects, books, aircraft and natural history specimens. Increasingly what was formerly intangible, such as traditions, customs and habits, is being recorded and documented in photographs, films, tapes and digital records; these also add to Australia's cultural heritage.

Movable cultural heritage refers to items of cultural heritage which are capable of being transported. Australia is one of only a few countries that have developed and published a specific policy and strategy to care for their movable cultural heritage. Through the Heritage Collections Council, governments at all levels work collaboratively with the museums sector and non-government organisations to conserve, promote, manage and provide access to Australia's collections of movable cultural heritage.

Natural heritage refers to the importance of ecosystems, biological diversity and geodiversity to the existence of life, and to their scientific, social, aesthetic and life-support value to present and future generations of people. It includes places of scientific or aesthetic importance, and geological features and landscapes. Extensive areas of coastline, forests, wetlands and deserts are included in national parks, nature reserves and wilderness areas. Many smaller sites are important habitats for native flora and fauna, enabling the conservation of threatened species. Many natural places are significant to Indigenous communities for cultural reasons.

Conservation of heritage places involves identifying them, surveying their values, and classifying and managing them. These functions are shared between all levels of government and their statutory authorities, with assistance from academic and professional bodies, individuals, community conservation organisations such as the national trusts, and conservation councils in each state and territory.

The Commonwealth Government maintains the Australian Heritage Places Inventory database on the Internet, providing the community with a one-stop shop for information on Commonwealth, state and territory heritage places throughout Australia. It also undertakes heritage activities on its own account. Examples of this include the nomination of sites for World Heritage listing, the protection of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage and the development of the Register of the National Estate - Australia's national heritage list. In December 2000, the Commonwealth Government introduced legislation to change the role of the Commonwealth in national heritage protection. Passage of the legislation was delayed